Psychological Defenses, Coping Strategies, and Anticipatory Consistency as Psychological Adaptation System: A Chronological Review

While psychological defenses, coping strategies, and anticipatory consistency are typically studied in isolation, this fragmentation creates a theoretical gap in understanding their systemic interaction as a unified mechanism of adaptation. This study addresses this limitation by proposing an original integrative functionalhierarchical model. The model defines a three-tier hierarchy: psychological defenses (basal level), coping strategies (intermediate level), and anticipatory competence (highest level). These components are linked through a dynamic system of principles, including compensation, hierarchical regulation, and dynamic equilibrium. By emphasizing the mechanism of compensation, the model resolves the long-standing contradiction between the neurobiological structural overlap and the functional hierarchy. Based on a methodology that spans comparative theoretical analysis, neuroscience, and cross-cultural developmental data, the review examines how adaptation disorders (rigidity, dissociation, and deficits) reveal specific neural correlates and socio-cultural variations. This new framework provides comprehensive diagnostics by identifying patterns of imbalance. Furthermore, it enables differentiated psychological interventions across multiple levels, marking a significant advancement in the study of neuroplasticity and systemic adaptation.

1. Abitov I. R. Peculiarities of coping with stress by healthy persons and patients with psychosomatic and neurotic disorders. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal, 2013, 34(1): 86–96. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/puzohx

2. Antsyferova L. I. Psychology of everyday life: The personal life-world and the techniques of its existence. In: Antsyferova L. I. Personality development and problems of gerontopsychology. Moscow: IP RAS, 2004, 328–349. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/skpuxd

3. Belorukova N. O., Biletskaya M. P., Bodrov V. A. et al. Coping behavior. Current status and prospects. Moscow: IP RAS, 2008, 474. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/pvnxuh

4. Berezin F. B. Mental and psychophysiological adaptation of man. Leningrad: Nauka, 1988, 267. (In Russ.)

5. Borovkova E. Yu., Nichiporenko N. P. The peculiarities of interconnection of personal traits and responsible behavior of mothers having children with chronic and acute diseases (a comparative aspect). Actual problems of psychological knowledge, 2013, (1): 122–129. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/pynnil

6. Wasserman L. I., Shchelkova O. Y. Medical psychodiagnostics. Moscow: Akademiia, 2003, 736. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/qlfwup

7. Wasserman L. I., Shchelkova O. Yu., Dubinina E. A. Medical psychodiagnostics: Modern research methodology and integration processes in psychology and medicine. Medical psychology in Russia, 2014, (4). (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/yjohkz

8. Granitsa A. S. Model of correlation between anticipatory consistency and intuitiveness in the development of neuroses. Bulletin of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery, 2020, (2): 31–36. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.33920/med-01-2002-04

9. Granovskaya R. M. Psychological defense. St. Petersburg: Rech, 2010, 476. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/qyalsf

10. Isaeva E. R. Mechanisms of psychological adaptation of the individual: Modern approaches to the study of coping and psychological defense. Vestnik Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta. Seriia 12. Psikhologiia. Sotsiologiia. Pedagogika, 2008, (2): 40–46. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/okkffp

11. Karvasarskiy B. D. Neuroses. Moscow: Medicine, 1990, 576. (In Russ.)

12. Clinical psychology, eds. Perrez M., Bauman U. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2002, 1312. (In Russ.)

13. Kondrashikhina O. A. Differential psychology. 2nd ed. Sevastopol: SevSU, 2022, 305. (In Russ.)

14. Kruzhkova O. V. Psychological defense and coping: Phenomenological relationship and structure. Pushkin Leningrad State University Journal, 2012, 5(1): 36–47. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/pjhcvz

15. Kryukova T. L. Psychology of coping behavior. Kostroma: Avantitul, 2004, 344. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/pfpxlv

16. Kryukova T. L., Ekimchik O. A., Opekina T. P., Shipova N. S. Stress and coping in a self-isolated family during COVID-19 pandemic. Social Psychology and Society, 2020, 11(4): 120–134. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.17759/sps.2020110409

17. Kryukova T. L., Kuftyak E. V. Questionnaire of coping methods (adapted WCQ method). Journal of Practical Psychologist, 2007, (3): 93–112. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/ygcfyx

18. Lazarus R. Stress theory and psychophysiological research. Emotional stress, eds. Levi L., Myasishchev V. N. Leningrad: Meditsina, 1970, 178–208. (In Russ.)

19. Lomov B. F., Surkov E. N. Anticipation in the structure of activity. Moscow: Nauka, 1980, 279. (In Russ.)

20. Mendelevich V. D. Anticipatory mechanisms of neurosis genesis. Kazan: Medicine, 2011, 288. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/qmcmuh

21. Nartova-Bochaver S. K. Coping behavior in the system of concepts of personality psychology. Psikhologicheskii zhurnal, 1997, 18(5): 20–30. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/rctpbb

22. Nichiporenko N. P., Mendelevich V. D. Anticipation abilities phenomenon as a subject of psychological research. Psikhologicheskii zhurnal, 2006, 27(5): 50–59. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/hvczsl

23. Ovchinnikov A. A., Sultanova A. N., Voitova A. S. Interrelation of anticipation mechanisms, psychological protection and coping at psychosomatic patients. Meditsina i obrazovanie v Sibiri, 2016, (3). (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/yipcwd

24. Pantеleeva G. V. Definition of the term anticipation in Russian psychology. Scientific notes of P. F. Lesgaft University, 2019, (8): 282–288. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/cpultm

25. Pantileev S. R., Zhilina E. Yu. Diagnostic method for personality defence mechanisms. Moscow University Psychology Bulletin, 2009, (1): 67–80. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/kxzolb

26. Regush L. A. Psychology of forecasting: Successes in understanding the future. St. Petersburg: Rech, 2003, 352. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/rswtmb

27. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2015, 713. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/nksakp

28. Sumina N. E., Nichiporenko N. P. Interconnection between anticipation consistency and personality properties. Russian Psychological Journal, 2007, 4(4): 22–29. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/ohlpvv

29. Timutsa D. R. Interconnection of anticipation abilities and coping strategies in patients with mixed anxiety and depressive disorder. Neurology Bulletin, 2020, 52(4): 93–96. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.17816/nb48958

30. Freud Z. The psychopathology of everyday life. Moscow: Azbuka-Atticus, 2023, 384. (In Russ.)

31. Chekhlaty E. I. Coping resources in neurotics with anxiety-phobic syndrome and their influence on the coping mechanisms. The Bulletin of Psychotherapy, 2006, (16): 20–31. (In Russ.) https://elibrary.ru/jukbsb

32. Anderson M. C., Ochsner K. N., Kuhl B., Cooper J., Robertson E., Gabrieli S. W., Glover G. H., Gabrieli J. D. E. Neural systems underlying the suppression of unwanted memories. Science, 2004, 303(5655): 232–235. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089504

33. Bandura A., Freeman W. H., Lightsey R. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1997, 13(2): 158–166. https://doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.13.2.158

34. Beck A. T. Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: Penguin, 1991, 356.

35. Beck J. S. Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond. New York: Guilford, 2020, 414.

36. Blake J., Norton C. L. Examining the relationship between hope and attachment: A meta-analysis. Psychology, 2014, 5(6): 556–565. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.56065

37. Bowlby J. Attachment and loss. Vol. 3: Loss, sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books, 1980, 472.

38. Cacioppo J. T., Berntson G. G., Decety J. Social neuroscience and its relationship to social psychology. Social Cognition, 2010, 28(6): 675–685. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.675

39. Carver C. S., Scheier M. F. Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2014, 18(6): 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.003

40. Cheng C., Lau H.-P. B., Chan M.-P. S. Coping flexibility and psychological adjustment to stressful life changes: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 2014, 140(6): 1582–1607. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037913

41. Compas B. E., Connor-Smith J. K., Saltzman H., Thomsen A. H., Wadsworth M. E. Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 2001, 127(1): 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.127.1.87

42. Costa P. T., McCrae R. R. The NEO inventories. Personality assessment, eds. Archer R. P., Smith S. R., New York: Routledge, 2008, 213–245.

43. Damasio A. R. Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. Random House, 2008, 352.

44. Davidson R. J. Anxiety and affective style: Role of prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 2002, 51(1): 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01328-2

45. Ekman P. Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, 274.

46. Endler N. S., Parker J. D. A. Coping inventory for stressful situations (CISS): Manual. 2nd ed. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems, 1999, 234.

47. Erikson E. H., Erikson J. M. The life cycle completed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998, 144.

48. Foa E. B., Hembree E., Rothbaum B. O. Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007, 160.

49. Folkman S. The case for positive emotions in the stress process. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 2008, 21(1): 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701740457

50. Freud A. The ego and the mechanisms of defence. London: Karnac Books, 1992, 204.

51. Greenberg L. S. Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings. Washington: American Psychological Association, 2015, 411.

52. Gross J. J. Emotion regulation in adultgood: Timing is everything. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2001, 10(6): 214–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00152

53. Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980, 445.

54. James W. The principles of psychology. New York: Dover, 1950, 689.

55. Jung C. G. The archetypes and the collective unconscious. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980, 451.

56. Kagan J. Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic Books, 1994, 376.

57. Kahneman D. Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011, 512.

58. Kessler R. C. The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 1997, 48: 191–214. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.191

59. Kirkham R., Liu C., Wulundari T., Aidman E., Yucel M., Wiley J., Albertella L. Emotion regulation and coping in active military personnel: A systematic review. Stress Health, 2025, 41(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.70036

60. Kobasa S. C. Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1979, 37(1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.37.1.1

61. Lazarus R. S., Folkman S. Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer, 1984, 456.

62. LeDoux J. E. The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996, 384.

63. Linehan M. M. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford, 1993, 558.

64. Maslow A. H. Motivation and personality. New York: Prabhat Prakashan, 2023, 379.

65. McEwen B. S. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: Central role of the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 2006, 8(4): 367–381. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen

66. Miller G. A. The cognitive revolution: A historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2003, 7(3): 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00029-9

67. Naragon-Gainey K., Watson D. Positive affectivity: The disposition to experience pleasurable emotional states. The Oxford handbook of positive psychology, eds. Lopez S. J., Edwards L., Marques S. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021, 297–308.

68. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of abnormal psychology, 1991, 100(4): 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.100.4.569

69. Nordbøe C., Enmarker I. The benefits of person-centered clinical supervision in municipal healthcare – employees’ experience. Open journal of nursing, 2017, 7(5): 548–560. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojn.2017.75042

70. Plutchik R. Emotions and life: Perspectives from psychology, biology, and evolution. Washington, DC: American psychological association, 2003, 381.

71. Plutchik R., Kellerman H., Conte H. R. A structural theory of ego defenses and emotions. Emotions in personality and psychopathology, ed. Izard C. E. New York: Plenum Press, 1979, 227–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-2892-6_9

72. Porges S. W. The polyvagal perspective. Biological psychology, 2007, 74(2): 116–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009

73. Reisenzein R. The attributional approach to emotion and motivation: Introduction to a special section of emotion review. Emotion Review, 2014, 6(4): 332–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914534508

74. Rogers C. R. On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961, 334.

75. Rotter J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80(1): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976

76. Seligman M. E. P. Learned optimism. New York: Pocket Books, 1998, 319.

77. Skinner B. F. Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press, 1965, 461.

78. Steindl C., Jonas E. What reasons might the other one have? – Perspective taking to reduce psychological reactance in individualists and collectivists. Psychology, 2012, 3(12A): 1153–1160. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.312A170

79. Taylor S. E., Klein L. C., Lewis B. P., Gruenewald T. L., Gurung R. A. R., Updegraff J. A. Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 2000, 107(3): 411–429. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.107.3.411

80. Turiaco F., Iannuzzo F., Lombardo C., Clementi V., Mento C., Drago A., Bruno A., Muscatello M. R. A., Pandolfo G. Role of early trauma on defense mechanisms and coping strategies in personality disorders. Medicina, 2025, 61(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61071162

81. Vaillant G. E. Adaptation to life. Boston: Little, Brown, 1977, 396.

82. Weiner B. The attribution approach to emotion and motivation: History, hypotheses, home runs, headaches / heartaches. Emotion Review, 2014, 6(4): 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914534502